GCSE History podcasts - The Cold War and Vietnam

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Katie: I'm history podcaster Katie Charlwood.

Datshiane: And I'm history graduate and TV and radio presenter Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And this is Bitesize GCSE History.

Datshiane: This is the first episode in a seven-part series on the Cold War and Vietnam War.

Katie: Throughout this series, we'll be looking at the key moments in the Cold War, the effects and lasting impact in Europe and the rest of the world.

Datshiane: We'll see a recurring theme which will link this topic together, which is the political ideologies of communism and capitalism.

Katie: As well as the proxy wars and the nuclear arms race, which we’ll look at in subsequent episodes.

Datshiane: But this episode we’ll start with the beginnings of the Cold War, looking at the alliances that formed after the Second World War and their conflicting ideologies.

Katie: There were three important conferences, all of which were significant to the Cold War, and in this episode we'll focus on the first of those in Tehran.

Datshiane: We'll be hearing from our Bitesize time travelling reporter who we'll be sending back in time to report from a key moment in the history of the Cold War.

Katie: Along the way. on our journey, we'll be sharing revision hints as well as essay and exam tips and we'll end with a quick summary of the main facts.

Datshiane: So, grab a pen or pencil to make those all-important revision notes, and we're always here, so feel free to press stop and rewind whenever you need to.

Katie: So, let's talk about those ideologies, because at the heart of the Cold War are two conflicting ideologies, those being capitalism and communism. The United States of America and its allies, including Britain, followed capitalism whilst the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the USSR, was communist.

Datshiane: Katie, can you describe the key differences between capitalism and communism?

Katie: This is one of those describe questions asking you to demonstrate your knowledge that we'll look at in the series on exam skills. Have a listen back to that if you need some tips and it might be useful to make some notes.

Datshiane: Exactly. So, capitalism and communism are two distinct economic and political ideologies, and they've shaped societies in different ways.

Katie: Yes, capitalism is an economic system based on private ownership of resources. That means the money you earn is yours to spend on what you want. In capitalism, individuals own property and businesses, which they operate for a profit.

Datshiane: Whereas in communism the resources and means of production are owned by the state or the community as a whole, with the goal of reducing inequalities. The economy is controlled by the state, who decide what to produce, how much and at what price.

Katie: Right, let's simplify this economic difference a little. Maybe you get a summer job. In a capitalist setting you get paid for the hours you work, and you're motivated to work harder since you'll make more money based on your effort. You can then use your earning for whatever you like, such as buying clothes or that shiny new phone.

Datshiane: Whereas in the communist setting you might have applied to the state for a summer job and they have decided where you will work, your pay is decided centrally, and regardless of how many hours you work or how much effort you put into your job, you're going to get paid the same as everyone else employed in the same place, even up to the highest managers.

Katie: And those are just the economic differences, but there are political and social differences as well. Capitalist governments are democratically elected in multi-party elections. There is emphasis on individual rights and free speech is championed. Different parties advertise on TV and social media and there are often public debates.

Datshiane: In comparison, communist governments tend to be undemocratic single-party states. Elections might be held, but there is only one party on the ballot or if there are other parties, the voting is rigged. The government controls the media as well as imposing censorship on free speech.

Katie: You can see that these two ideologies are in conflict, as capitalism emphasises individual freedom, wealth accumulation and democracy, while communism prioritises equality, communal ownership and state control. Head over to the Bitesize website for more on the differences between these ideologies.

Katie: So, two ideologies which are polar opposites of each other, and these fed into the initial causes of the Cold War itself, for which we must go back to World War II in Europe.

Datshiane: The USA along with Britain fought with the USSR, despite their ideological differences against Nazi Germany. This was the so-called Grand Alliance formed during the war in 1941.

Katie: This alliance was fragile as the three powers had conflicting ideologies and long-term goals that ultimately led them from being allies to being enemies.

Datshiane: You may be asked to write about how these differences led to the Cold War, so grab a pencil, pen or other digital device and make some revision notes if it's helpful.

Katie: We've already seen that the United States and Britain were capitalist democracies, and the USSR was a communist state, but there were other tensions beneath the surface.

Datshiane: Too right. Although they cooperated against Hitler, the Allies were distrustful of each other. The USSR was taking heavy losses on the Eastern Front and Joseph Stalin, the leader of the USSR, thought that the USA and Britain were delaying opening up a second front in Western Europe. He supposedly said: ‘To the defeat of Naziism the British gave time, the Americans gave money, and the Soviet Union gave blood.’

Katie: The USA and Britain feared that the USSR’S intentions were not just about defeating Germany, but about spreading communism across Europe.

Datshiane: Between the 28th of November and the 1st of December 1943, the three leaders of this Grand Alliance met in person for the first time at a conference in Tehran in Iran. They were the USSR President Joseph Stalin, American President Franklin D Roosevelt and the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill.

Katie: Let's hear from our time-travelling reporter Jordan, who is at the Tehran Conference in 1943.

Jordan: I'm standing outside the building where three of the most powerful leaders of the world, Winston Churchill, Franklin D Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin, have been planning the next phase of World War II. This is a defining moment, the Allies’ strategy to defeat Hitler is coming into focus. As Churchill and Roosevelt push for a direct assault on Nazi Germany, Stalin has his eyes set on control over Eastern Europe, but for now they're showing a united front and today they signed a historic declaration stating their aim. In it they say: ‘We are sure that our concord will win an enduring peace. We recognise fully the supreme responsibility resting upon us and all the united nations to make a peace which will command the goodwill of the overwhelming mass of the people of the world and banish the scourge and terror of war for many generations. [applause] There's a sense that the future of the world is being drawn right here, and it's not just about defeating Hitler, but is it to be a peaceful future through all the united nations or will there be new tensions set from differing ideologies? This is Jordan reporting from Tehran, December 1943. Back to the Bitesize studio.

Katie: Thanks, Jordan. Although the Tehran Conference showed unity, it also revealed all those underlying tensions and ideological differences that contributed to the Cold War. It was also one of three conferences attended by the leaders of the Grand Alliance. We'll be looking at Yalta and Potsdam in the next episode.

Datshiane: It's note making time again as that Tehran conference was significant in shaping post-war Europe, as well as exposing the tensions at the heart of the Grand Alliance and this may be something that you're asked to write about in an exam. Remember that a significance question is asking you to show your knowledge and the impact or consequences of an event. If you like spider diagrams, well, this is a great time to make one.

Katie: OK, at Tehran, Britain and the USA agreed to launching that Western offensive that Stalin was desperate for. This was important because it temporarily built trust between the USSR and the Allies.

Datshiane: But although the leaders agreed on the need to defeat the Nazis, there was disagreement on how to manage a post-war Germany. Listen back to the episodes in the series on the denazification of Germany or head over to the Bitesize website for more details.

Katie: The USSR claimed it wanted to secure its western borders by controlling Poland and other Eastern European countries, thereby creating the USSR-aligned satellite states.

Datshiane: This expansion of USSR influence was in turn a significant factor in the breakdown of Allied relations as the West saw it as the start of USSR imperialism.

Katie: And there was another important outcome from the Tehran Conference, one that Jordan hinted at in his report. This was plans to create a new international organisation to help maintain peace after the war, and this became the United Nations.

Datshiane: In their signed declaration at the end of the Tehran Conference the three leaders said: ‘We came here with hope and determination. We leave here friends in fact, in spirit and in purpose.

Katie: So, if you were asked a question about the Tehran Conference and how it contributed to the Cold War, you can use your knowledge of those ideological differences, the conflicting visions of post-war Germany and USSR creation of satellite states as a basis for an answer.

Datshiane: Each of those points could be a short paragraph. Use evidence to explain the point. Things like a source quote can be really useful to include here and then say how this links back to the question. Katie, give us an example.

Katie: Of course. The Tehran Conference revealed the Allies’ fundamentally different political ideologies and goals. That's my point. And the evidence to explain my point and link back to the question might be - Roosevelt and Churchill became suspicious of Stalin's intentions to extend the USSR’s buffer zones in Eastern Europe. In his memoirs Churchill wrote that:

Churchill: It was clear to me that Stalin's idea [crosstalk] …

Katie: ‘It was clear to me that Stalin's idea of friendly neighbours was entirely different from ours. We wanted to see nations free to govern themselves, while Stalin's view was to secure satellite states.’ This highlighted a key ideological divide that would later shape the Cold War.

Datshiane: Nice source quote there. You might want to end with a short conclusion. So Katie, what would your conclusion say?

Katie: Hmm, something like: Although it was primarily focused on military cooperation, the Tehran conference exposed deep-seated ideological differences and competing visions for post-war Europe and so it contributed to the Cold War tensions to a significant extent.

Datshiane: Have a go yourself after the podcast, and you can listen back to the exam skills series if you need hints on answering GCSE history questions.

Katie: All right Datshiane, time for a quick test. Three questions, five seconds to write those answers down. Here goes. What was the Grand Alliance?

Datshiane: The Grand Alliance was a military coalition formed during World War II, made up of the USA, the USSR and Britain.

[correct bell sounds]

Katie: Great, and what is a key political difference between capitalist and communist systems?

Datshiane: So, the capitalist systems have multiple political parties and democratic elections, whilst communist systems often have a single party state with no democratic elections.

[correct bell sounds]

Katie: And what is a key economic difference between capitalist and communist systems?

Datshiane: In communism, all property is owned by the state, whereas in capitalism property is privately owned.

[correct bell sounds]

Katie: Brilliant. Well done if you got all three, but if you didn't, don't worry. Just rewind, have another lesson or head over to the Bitesize website. Summary time. Datshiane, it's over to you.

Datshiane: The seeds of the Cold War were sown in the Grand Alliances formed during the Second World War and their conflicting ideologies, which we're going to return to again and again in this series.

Katie: Capitalism in the United States and Britain.

Datshiane: And Communism in the USSR.

Katie: The Tehran Conference in 1943 was the first meeting of the Big Three, leaders of the Grand Alliance.

Datshiane: It was a key step in winning the war but marked the start of tensions that would later fuel the Cold War.

Katie: And in the next episode, we'll look at how the Cold War developed with two post-war conferences in Yalta and Potsdam.

Datshiane: But Katie, which of the Big Three leaders will turn up? That's a cliffhanger.

Katie: Guess you'll just have to find out. Bye for now.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Katie: I'm history podcaster Katie Charlwood.

Datshiane: And I'm a history enthusiast and TV and radio presenter Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And this is Bitesize GCSE History.

Datshiane: This is the second episode in a seven-part series on the Cold War and the Vietnam War.

Katie: Throughout this series, we'll be looking at the key moments in the Cold War, how worsening tensions between ideologically opposed USSR and the USA led to a worsening of their relationship and resulted in the arms race and proxy wars.

Datshiane: In the first episode we looked at the background to the Cold War and in this episode we'll examine how tensions escalated further in the immediate post-war period.

Katie: We’ll be sharing revision tips on how to remember those key facts and there'll be essay and exam tips, a quickfire test and we'll end with a summary of everything we're about to look at.

Datshiane: And we'll be sending our Bitesize History time-travelling reporter Kitty back in time to a key moment in Cold War history.

Katie: If it helps, have something to make notes on and do feel free to press stop and rewind whenever you need to.

Datshiane: Katie, let's do a quick recap of the Tehran Conference which we saw in the previous episode was one of the initial causes of the Cold War.

Katie: Of course. The three leaders of the Grand Alliance met in Tehran in 1943: President Roosevelt of the USA, Britain’s Prime Minister Churchill and USSR leader Stalin.

Datshiane: Now, as World War II was coming to an end and an Allied victory was looking likely, the three nations and the same three leaders met again, this time in Yalta in the USSR in February 1945. Let's look at what they wanted from this conference.

Katie: This is a good time to make some notes as to the outcomes of Yalta and how some of these fed into the Cold War. So, grab something that looks like a pen or a pencil to do just that. In this conference, they discussed how to manage the post-war world, particularly in Europe.

Datshiane: Firstly, Germany was to be divided into four occupation zones. They were to be controlled by Britain, the United States, the USSR and France. Berlin, the capital, would also be split into four zones. In the next episode we'll see how this became a continuing source of Cold War tension.

Katie: Secondly, Stalin promised to allow free elections in Eastern European countries that the Soviet army was liberating from Nazi control. However, Stalin's idea of free elections differed from Western views, which also led to tension.

Datshiane: Thirdly, the leaders agreed to establish the United Nations to promote peace and prevent future global conflicts.

Katie: And finally, the USSR agreed to join the war against Japan after Germany's surrender in exchange for territory in Asia.

Datshiane: In your revision notes, try to link each outcome to the consequence it had on relations between the Grand Alliance. Here's the starter for you, Katie. What consequences did Stalin’s promise of free elections in Eastern European countries have?

Katie: All right, so outcome is the promise of those free elections, and the consequence was that the USSR control over Eastern Europe, and its refusal to allow democratic elections in Poland, caused deep distrust between them and the USA and Britain.

Datshiane: You can continue that list after the podcast with the other outcomes from Yalta.

Katie: OK, so we've had two conferences; one more to go. This one in Potsdam in Germany in July 1945 after the war in Europe had ended; still attended by the leaders of Britain, USA and the USSR. But two of those leaders were different from the previous conferences. Why so, Datshiane?

Datshiane: Well, Roosevelt had died earlier in 1945, so the American president was now Harry Truman and Clement Attlee was now the British Prime Minister. However, the USSR was still ruled by Joseph Stalin.

Katie: Grab those note-taking devices and again link those conference outcomes to their consequences on the Cold War.

Datshiane: The USSR had suffered devastating losses during the war, with millions of its citizens killed and much of the country destroyed by Nazi invasion. So, Stalin pushed for harsh treatment to Germany and its economy to prevent it from rearming.

Katie: Right, the Allies confirmed that Germany would have all its military forces removed, meaning it was to be demilitarised to prevent any future aggression. What else?

Datshiane: Here's what else. It was also agreed that the USSR would take reparations from its own German zone but would also receive some resources from the Western zones.

Katie: Germany’s borders were redrawn, and large parts of Eastern Germany were given to Poland. Millions of Germans were forced to leave these areas, creating a major refugee crisis.

Datshiane: And the Allies also agreed to prosecute Nazi leaders for war crimes, and this led to the Nuremberg Trials.

Katie: So, some eventual agreements between the three leaders, but Truman's relationship with Stalin was very different to that of Franklin Roosevelt, and those personal relationships are always important, aren't they?

Datshiane: Absolutely. Initially, their relationship was friendly and respectful, and Truman even described Stalin as honest, but smart as hell. But it soon deteriorated. Truman eventually saw Stalin as a tyrant who was all about spreading communism and gaining control over Eastern Europe. It was at Potsdam, where Truman informed Stalin about the United States’ development of a nuclear weapon, the atom bomb, and he hinted that the USA would use it against Japan if they refused to surrender. This announcement further heightened tensions between the USA and the USSR.

Katie: And why was that?

Datshiane: Well, think about it. The USSR had been trying to develop its own bomb but were years behind the USA, and they saw this as not just a threat to its own security but also a shifting of world power towards the West.

Katie: Here Datshiane, take a look at this picture from the American National Archives of Truman's handwriting on the back of a photo from the Potsdam Conference.

Datshiane: Oh, yes. So here Truman has written about the photo: ‘In which I tell Stalin we expect to drop the most powerful explosives ever made on the Japanese. He smiled and said he appreciated me telling him.’ Hmm. Katie, that reaction from Stalin, it doesn't sound like he was too surprised.

Katie: Yeah, exactly. There's lots of evidence that the USSR had spies that were keeping Stalin up to date about USA’s progress on the bomb.

Datshiane: Well, days after the Potsdam Conference in August 1945, the USA dropped two atomic bombs on Japanese cities, resulting in the deaths and injury to hundreds of thousands of people, as well as the eventual end of World War II.

So, three important conferences: Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam.

Katie: A good way to remember them is by remembering Thank You Potsdam, T for thank and Tehran, Y for You and Yalta and P for, well, Potsdam. In 1946 in the aftermath of Potsdam, the now former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made a speech in which he described the increasing divisions in Europe between capitalist and communist countries as if an 'iron curtain' had descended across Europe.

Datshiane: We mentioned that the USA had a new president at Potsdam, Harry Truman. Well, he had contrasting views compared to Roosevelt. Let's hear it from our time-travelling reporter, Kitty. She's in Washington DC in the USA in 1947.

Kitty: We've just heard President Truman's momentous announcement to the US government. He stepped up to the podium and delivered a speech that will no doubt change the course of the Cold War. He said, ‘I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.’ It's obvious that those outside pressures Truman refers to is the USSR and communism. His doctrine is clear: the USA is stepping in to contain communism and Truman's words feel like the next stage of this ideological battle between East and West. A shift in USA foreign policy taking on a role of actively supporting countries threatened by communism. The Cold War is heating up. This is Kitty reporting from 1947. Back to the studio.

Datshiane: Thanks, Kitty. Let's summarise Truman’s beliefs about the threat posed by the USSR or as it is known, the Truman Doctrine.

Katie: All right, well, he believed that if one country fell to communism others might follow in a kind of domino effect. So, in order to stop this, the USA would provide military and economic support to countries threatened by Soviet influence, and some of the key consequences of this were played out in the immediate years. You might want to grab that pen again and note these down.

Datshiane: In March 1947 the USA provided $400 million in military and economic assistance to Greece and Turkey to help both countries resist communist influence.

Katie: And in 1948 the USA began to provide over $12 billion to Western European nations to rebuild industries and infrastructure and to prevent them from turning to communism. This was through the Marshall Plan.

Datshiane: And in 1949 the United States and Western European countries formed NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, to counter the spread of communism and the perceived threat of Soviet expansion.

Katie: And the response from the USSR was… positive to all this, I suppose?

Datshiane: Uh no, definitely not. They saw the Truman Doctrine as a direct challenge to its sphere of influence and they thought that the USA was trying to expand its own influence in Europe.

Katie: Thought so! So, overall, the Truman Doctrine marked the beginning of active USA opposition to Soviet expansion, it divided Europe into East and West by Churchill's Iron Curtain and it set the foundation for decades of Cold War rivalry.

Datshiane: It also set the stage for the USA’s involvement in global conflicts as part of their policy of containment. We'll look at two proxy wars in Korea and in Vietnam in later episodes.

Katie: OK, so a quick test to help those key facts stick. Three questions, five seconds each to write the answers down or press pause and have a little longer. Here goes. What was the main purpose of the Yalta conference in 1945?

Datshiane: The main purpose was to discuss the reorganisation of post-war Europe and the fate of Germany.

[correct bell sounds]

Katie: And what was the Truman Doctrine?

Datshiane: It was a policy in 1948, declaring that the USA would provide economic and military support to countries resisting communism.

[correct bell sounds]

Katie: And the Marshall Plan?

Datshiane: That was financial support to Western European nations to help them rebuild their industry and infrastructure after the war.

[correct bell sounds]

Katie: Well done. Even though we can't see you, I just know you aced that.

Datshiane: Head over to the Bitesize website for more information on this episode and others in this series.

Katie: Thanks for listening.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Datshiane: I'm Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And I'm Katie Charlwood. And this is Bitesize GCSE History.

Datshiane: This is the third episode in a seven-part series on the Cold War and Vietnam War. In this episode, we'll be looking at the late 1940s and 1950s in Europe, as the growing distrust between the USA and USSR saw tensions continue… and the beginnings of an arms race.

Katie: We'll focus on the creation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact, the Berlin Blockade and Airlift and the uprisings in Hungary and later in Czechoslovakia.

Datshiane: So, Katie, you've got twenty seconds to tell me why Berlin was a flashpoint in the Cold War tensions.

Katie: Start the clock. After the War, the Allied powers divided Germany between themselves. Berlin sat in the Soviet Zone but as it was the capital city it was also divided. But, here's a big problem. The Allies could only access their zones by road, rail and three specific air corridors.

Datshiane: And stop the clock. Well done. Tensions between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union increased as they had conflicting visions for Germany's future. The West wanted a democratic and economically stable Germany; whilst the USSR wanted Germany weak and under Soviet influence to prevent future threats. In January 1948, hoping to boost economic recovery, the USA and Britain merged their zones in Germany into a single area called Bizonia; to which France merged their zone later. And they called it, Katie?

Katie: Trizonia?

Datshiane: Bingo! Well, this unification paved the way for the development of a distinct West Germany nation. And in 1948 they even introduced a new currency, the Deutsche Mark, in these zones to stabilise the economy and combat inflation.

Katie: But how do you think the Soviets would see this? Surely they would see it as a threat.

Datshiane: They absolutely did. They saw it as an attempt to create a strong Capitalist Germany. So, how do you think the Soviets responded?

Katie: Not very well, to say the least. The USSR blocked all land and water routes into West Berlin. Effectively cutting off food, fuel and other essential supplies to the two million residents in the western sectors, aiming to force the Allies out. Time to move on to the actual event and find out what happened next. West Berlin only had enough food for thirty-six days. But, with roads and rail access cut off, what could the Western Allies do? Move the blockades perhaps?

Datshiane: Well, they could but that would have been seen as an act of war.

Katie: Fly in supplies?

Datshiane: Spot on. They flew thousands of tonnes of supplies into West Berlin daily for nearly a year. Airlifting delivering essential items like food, coal and medicine.

Katie: And what about Stalin? What could he do in response?

Datshiane: Well, not much. Think about it. If he shot down the planes that would have been an act of war from the Soviet side. And anyway, he didn't think that the airlift could possibly work. In the Western Zones the Berlin citizens even helped troops build a new runway at the old airport, and they helped to unload the planes. There were still shortages though. But, at its height, there was a plane landing every minute.

Katie: The Berlin Blockade finally ended in May 1949 when the Soviets eventually backed down. It was costly for them as well, both economically and diplomatically. And it was obvious that it wasn't achieving its intended goal of gaining control over all of Berlin. So, what did it achieve?

Datshiane: Well, it deepened the divide between East and West Germany and it solidified the split between the USA and the USSR, setting the stage for future Cold War conflicts. However, there were no military or civilian casualties. The West had responded in a peaceful way to an aggressive act by Stalin.

Katie: The Berlin Airlift is an important event. Make sure you can give three causes as to why it happened and three consequences. Pause and rewind if you need a refresh.

Katie: Berlin would be a source of tension for years to come. In the aftermath of the crisis, in 1949, NATO was formed. It was, and still is, an alliance of Western Allied countries around the world for mutual defence. So, how did Stalin respond?

Datshiane: Well, in 1955 the USSR and its Eastern European communist allies created the Warsaw Pact as a collective defence against the West. It also solidified Soviet control over Eastern Europe.

Katie: The Cold War between the USA and the USSR was being fought in another way; and a way that was threatening the whole World. This is what's referred to as the nuclear arms race.

Datshiane: You could argue that the arms race began when the USA dropped atom bombs for the first time on the Japanese cities Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, which ultimately did end World War II.

Katie: And yes, this alarmed Stalin who knew the USSR needed to have their own nuclear weapons to keep them on an equal footing and for self defence. They successfully tested their own atom bomb in 1949. Now two nations had these destructive weapons, and throughout the 1950s, the USA and USSR continued to test more and more powerful bombs. Check out what these were on our timeline on the Bitesize website.

Datshiane: These weapons could have destroyed the world many times over. Yet, having nuclear weapons is also known as having a nuclear deterrent.

Katie: And what that means is a country would be deterred, or stopped, from using nuclear weapons because doing so would lead to the destruction of both sides.

Datshiane: That's mad! M-A-D. Mutually Assured Destruction. This fear of mutual destruction has kept both sides in a tense but ultimately non-violent standoff throughout the Cold War. There's just no point dropping a nuclear bomb if you're going to get one dropped on you. More on this in the next episode.

Datshiane: Stalin died in 1953 and was replaced by Nikita Khrushchev. The USA under Eisenhower hoped that with a new president in the Soviet Union the Cold War might thaw.

Katie: In 1956, Khrushchev delivered his so called 'secret speech' criticising the harsh rule of Stalin and promising reforms. This speech inspired hope in Eastern Europe that the USSR might allow more freedoms and lessen its control.

Datshiane: In fact, this speech encouraged Hungarians to call for change, including the withdrawal of Soviet troops, greater freedom of speech and reforms in leadership. And on October 23rd students held a large protest in Budapest demanding these changes.

Katie: As the protest grew, clashes broke out between demonstrators and the Soviet-backed secret police. When a statue of Stalin was torn down, violence escalated and Hungarians took to the streets fighting Soviet soldiers and calling for an end to Soviet control.

Datshiane: Let's go right back to our time-travelling Bitesize reporter Jordan who's in Budapest on November 4th 1956.

Jordan: I'm standing on the streets as the rumble of Soviet tanks grow louder by the minute. It was only yesterday that Prime Minister Nagy made the announcement that Hungary is withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact. But today one thousand tanks have rolled in crushing that hope under their treads. The Hungarian people are fighting back armed with whatever they can find. Barricades are going up and the smell of burning debris fills the air. And the Soviet response is brutal. Their tanks are rolling right over the cars and buildings. Just days ago Nagy had promised freedom and neutrality. "We will not abandon our sovereignty." he declared. But it seems the USSR isn't going to let Hungary go without a fight. It's a desperate situation with civilians caught in the crossfire. Thousands are fleeing but many are staying to fight to defend their country from what they see as an occupying force. This is Jordan, reporting from the heart of the Hungarian Revolution. Back to the studio.

Datshiane: Thanks, Jordan. The Hungarian uprising in 1956 was crushed by Soviet forces reaffirming the USSR's dominance in Eastern Europe. Nagy, the Hungarian Prime Minister, was put on trial and then executed. Khrushchev described the death as a lesson to all the leaders of Socialist countries.

Katie: Let's say an exam question asks you to write about the impact of the Hungarian Uprising on USSR and USA relations.

Datshiane: Well, because the USA didn't intervene, one consequence was that Khrushchev became more confident that the USA was unlikely to take military action in future protests. Another consequence was no other satellite state in Eastern Europe dared to challenge Soviet authority after the events in Hungary.

Datshiane: Back in Germany, by the late 1950s, more trouble was brewing.

Katie: Not Berlin again at the heart of Cold War tension?

Datshiane: I'm afraid so. And this continued. Thanks to money and aid from the Marshall Plan, West Germany had become more prosperous than East Germany. And it attracted skilled people like engineers, teachers and technicians. And the easiest way to move from East Germany to West Germany was through West Berlin.

Katie: In 1958, Khrushchev issued an ultimatum demanding that the Western Allies withdraw from Berlin and make it a 'free city' controlled by neither East nor West. This ultimatum was Khrushchev's attempt to force the Allies out, and close off the escape route through West Berlin.

Datshiane: The Western Allies refused Khrushchev's demand, seeing West Berlin as a symbol of freedom and a critical Cold War foothold. The USA made it clear that it would defend West Berlin's status.

Katie: And this ongoing crisis peaked in 1961 when the East German leader, Walter Ulbricht, backed by the Soviets, ordered a wall to be built to stop the flow of people from East to the West. The Berlin Wall solidified the division of Berlin and became a defining symbol of the Cold War.

Datshiane: It might be useful for us to write down the causes and consequences of the Berlin Wall.

Katie: So, the causes include: the migration of East Germans to the West searching for better opportunities; Khrushchev's free city ultimatum; longer term causes from the division of Germany after the war; and our old friend, those ideological differences between capitalism and communism. Alright, Datshiane, what about the consequences?

Datshiane: Well, on a personal level, the Wall physically divided East and West Berlin separating families, friends and communities. But the wall became a powerful symbol of Cold War division with West Berlin representing democratic freedom and East Berlin representing the communist oppression.

Katie: In 1963, the American President, John F Kennedy, visited Berlin where he was welcomed and gave a famous speech about freedom in which he said this:

John F Kennedy: All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin. And therefore as a free man I take pride in the words, Ich bin ein Berliner.

[applause]

Katie: ‘Ich bin ein Berliner’ which means I am a Berliner, showing his solidarity with Berlin's citizens.

Datshiane: By the late 1960s, Cold War tensions had still not calmed down. And another East European country where people demanded change was Czechoslovakia. In 1968, there was an uprising referred to as the Prague Spring.

Katie: In Czechoslovakia Alexander Dubček was elected leader in 1968. He was committed to the Warsaw Pact but believed that communism shouldn't make life miserable. He wanted reforms to help improve people's quality of living and make it easier for Czechs to travel abroad. He also increased trade with the West. This was known as the Prague Spring.

Datshiane: These reforms did not go down well with the USSR. And the new leader, Leonid Brezhnev, order five hundred thousand Warsaw Pact troops to invade. For the next twenty years Czechoslovakia remained firmly under Soviet control.

Katie: There's more on the Prague Spring as well as the Hungarian Uprising and Berlin Wall at the Bitesize website. Head over there after the podcast. Summary time.

Datshiane: The Cold War period after the war in Europe saw tensions and uprisings including the Berlin Blockade and Airlift in 1949, the Hungarian Uprising in 1956 and the Prague Spring in 1968.

Katie: NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, was formed in 1949 by the Western nations. In response, the Warsaw Pact was formed by the Communist bloc.

Datshiane: And, importantly during this period, a nuclear arms race between the USA and USSR developed and escalated. In the next episode we'll look more at that, as well as the Cuban Missile Crisis which brought the world to the brink of nuclear war.

Katie: On that spine-chilling note, thanks for listening.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Katie: I'm history podcaster Katie Charlwood.

Datshiane: And I'm history graduate and TV and radio presenter Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And this is Bitesize GCSE History.

Datshiane: This is the fourth episode in a seven-part series on the Cold War and Vietnam War.

Katie: Throughout the series we are looking at the key moments in the Cold War and the impact it had on Europe and the rest of the world. And we look at what became known as the arms race which was driven by conflicting ideologies, Capitalism and Communism.

Datshiane: In this episode we'll see the growing distrust and hostility between the USA and the USSR and how the build-up of nuclear arms was threatening to world politics. We'll also see the Cold War coming closer to the USA and the potential outbreak of nuclear war.

Katie: To help you we'll be sharing revision hints and tips on how to remember those key facts. And there'll be essay and exam tips, a quiz to test your knowledge and we'll end with a summary of everything we're about to look at.

Datshiane: And don't forget our Bitesize time-travelling reporter Kitty. Today, we'll be sending her back in time to 1962 for that moment when the world held its breath in fear. And remember that it might help you to have something to make notes on. And do feel free to press stop and rewind whenever you need to.

Datshiane: Okay. Let's get started. Nuclear arsenals. What do we mean when we talk about nuclear arsenals in the Cold War?

Katie: Having developed nuclear weapons, both the USA and the USSR then built large stockpiles of them. And these were referred to as nuclear arsenals.

Datshiane: These weapons were bombs that could be dropped by planes. But there were also rockets with nuclear bombs inside that could travel thousands of miles. Both superpowers developed intercontinental ballistic missiles or ICBMs; and also submarine launched ballistic missiles or SLBMs; and strategic bombers. This stockpile of nuclear weapons led to something called the MAD theory or Mutually Assured Destruction. This was the idea that neither side would launch a nuclear attack as they'd know that the other side could retaliate, leading to the total annihilation of both. MAD created a kind of delicate balance of power. And it prevented direct conflict between the superpowers.

Katie: In 1955, Prime Minister Winston Churchill said, and I'm going to give you my best Churchill impression, that "If both Cold War blocs enjoyed comparable levels of destructive capacity, then by a sublime irony safety will be the sturdy child of terror, and survival the twin brother of annihilation."

Datshiane: Katie, what does that mean?

Katie: Well, basically, Churchill is saying that the idea of mutually assured destruction helped keep the peace during the Cold War.

Datshiane: But the USA and USSR did come very close to war on a number of occasions, and in 1962 there were thirteen days when the world held its breath during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Katie: Okay. So, let's go over the background. Get those writing devices ready and take notes. First, the causes leading up to the crisis.

Datshiane: Cuba had a communist government and this made America uneasy.

Katie: But Cuba is just a small island. So what if it decided to have a communist government?

Datshiane: Yes, but, if you look at a map of the world, you'll see how close this small Caribbean island is to America. It's only a hundred miles away from Florida.

Katie: Hah! Communism on America's doorstep?!

Datshiane: That's exactly how they felt. And in 1959 Cuba's leader, Fidel Castro, nationalised all the American businesses in Cuba. And he began trading with the Soviet Union. So, not surprisingly, the Americans were deeply angered.

Katie: And how did the Americans respond?

Datshiane: Well, the USA cut off trade and diplomatic links with Cuba. But that led to Cuba forming closer ties with the USSR who were happy to send economic and military support. And then, Katie, things really did begin to escalate. Who, where and what happened next? You go.

Katie: In April 1961, the USA supported an invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs by Cuban exiles. Although this failed, it made Cuba feel vulnerable to further attacks. And so, what does Castro do?

Datshiane: He sought more military protection from the Soviet Union. And, in 1962 the USSR leader, Khrushchev, secretly placed nuclear missiles, which could easily reach the USA, in Cuba.

Katie: Except, they weren't all that secret. In October 1962, spy planes from the USA photographed the missile sites under construction. President Kennedy was informed and decided that the USA could not tolerate nuclear weapons so close to its shores, setting off a tense thirteen-day standoff.

Datshiane: I can feel the tension myself. So, this is a bit of a dilemma for Kennedy. Let's look at his options. He could ignore the missiles or involve the United Nations.

Katie: But both of those might make him look weak.

Datshiane: True. So, he could invade Cuba or set up a blockade around the island.

Katie: Which of course might make him look stronger but would increase the tensions.

Datshiane: I know, let's cross over back in time and space to our reporter, Kitty, who is in Washington DC on October 22nd 1962. As you're listening to Kitty, make a note of what Kennedy eventually decided to do.

Kitty: American President, John F Kennedy, has addressed the nation about the crisis in Cuba, just a hundred miles off the coast of Florida. Just days ago, American U2 spy planes captured photographs showing that the Soviet Union is constructing missile launch sites in Cuba, and experts say they could be ready to fire in just days. The situation has escalated quickly. Soviet ships are now sailing towards Cuba potentially loaded with more missiles and military supplies. Are we teetering on the brink of nuclear war? After last year's failed invasion, which made Kennedy look weak, his speech today was one of defiance and strength. He said this:

John F Kennedy: Within the past week, unmistakable evidence has established the fact that a series of offensive missile sites is now in preparation on that imprisoned island. The purpose of these bases can be none other than to provide a nuclear strike capability against the Western hemisphere. To halt this offensive build-up, a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated. All ships of any kind bound for Cuba, from whatever nation or port, will if found to contain cargo of offensive weapons, be turned back.

Kitty: The tension is palpable because the fear of nuclear war looms large. The stakes have never been higher, and the world is waiting to see if diplomacy can avert disaster. This is Kitty reporting from the heart of the Cuban Missile Crisis. Back to the studio.

Datshiane: Thanks, Kitty. The world watched as the two superpowers approached the brink of nuclear war. After thirteen days and tense negotiations, Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for an American promise not to invade Cuba, as well as the removal of American not-so-secret missiles from Turkey which were aimed at the USSR. Everyone breathed a sigh of relief. Nuclear war had been averted.

Katie: Another consequence of the Cuban Missile Crisis was that it highlighted the need for direct communication between the superpowers to avoid misunderstandings. And so, a hotline was established between Washington and Moscow to enable instant communication between the USA and Soviet leaders in times of crisis.

Datshiane: So, the Cuban Missile Crisis also shifted Cold War policy, as both superpowers recognised the dangers of this arms race brinkmanship. And it began a period of detente, or easing of tensions.

Katie: And this led to future arms control agreements like the 1963 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty to end testing nuclear weapons. And an agreement known as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks or SALT. S-A-L-T. Make a note of those consequences and head over to the Bitesize website for more details.

Datshiane: The Cuban Missile Crisis was one of the most intense moments of the Cold War, leaving lasting impacts on international diplomacy, nuclear arms control and American-Cuban relations.

Katie: An exam question might ask you about the causes, key events and consequences of the Cuban Missile Crisis. So, make sure you know the timeline of events, the who, what, where and when. And most importantly the why.

Datshiane: After this podcast have a go at writing this short essay question. Explain how events in Cuba became an international crisis by October 1962. Have a listen back to that section as all of those key facts, causes and consequences are there.

Datshiane: In the meantime, a quick refresh test to remind ourselves about the Cuban Missile Crisis. Three questions, five seconds but no prizes.

Katie: What was the Bay of Pigs invasion?

Datshiane: It was a failed invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles backed by American President Kennedy.

[correct bell sounds]

Katie: What did American U2 spy planes discover in Cuba in 1962?

Datshiane: Soviet nuclear missile sites.

[correct bell sounds]

Katie: How did President Kennedy respond to the discovery of missiles in Cuba?

Datshiane: He imposed a naval blockade around Cuba leading to a thirteen-day standoff with the USSR. Katie, let's summarise this episode.

Katie: All right. During the Cold War, the USA and the USSR built up their nuclear arsenal.

Datshiane: But, none were ever used due to the idea of mutually assured destruction, or MAD.

Katie: The nearest the superpowers came to actual conflict was over the Cuban Missile Crisis when the USA discovered that the USSR had installed nuclear weapons on the island of Cuba on America's doorstep.

Datshiane: After a failed invasion at the Bay of Pigs, the USA imposed a naval blockade and ordered the USSR to remove the missiles.

Katie: The USSR eventually backed down and the missiles were removed. And in return, the USA removed its missiles from Turkey.

Datshiane: Relations slowly improved and led to arms control talks between the USA and USSR.

Katie: Loads more on this and other history subjects on the Bitesize website.

Datshiane: In the next episode, we'll continue our look at the Cold War as it moves to conflict in Asia.

Katie: The Korean War where again those ideological differences between the USA and the USSR are once again at the forefront. Thanks for listening.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Katie: I'm history podcaster Katie Charlwood.

Datshiane: And I'm history graduate and TV and radio presenter Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And this is Bitesize GCSE History.

Datshiane: This is the fifth episode in a seven-part series on the Cold War and Vietnam War. And in this episode we're going to look at the Korean war, and how distrust and hostility between the superpowers moved to a new front in Asia.

Katie: We'll look at the causes, key events, the response of the United Nations, and the role of China and the impact of the Korean War.

Datshiane: To help you we'll be sharing revision hints and tips on how to remember key facts, and there'll be essay and exam advice.

Katie: And we'll check in with our Bitesize time-travelling reporter Jordan today, who'll be reporting from a key moment in this history.

Datshiane: Remember, if it helps to make notes you can always press stop and rewind whenever you need to.

Datshiane: Okay, let's get started. The Korean War, Katie give us the background to this, the who, the what, the when, and importantly the why - the causes.

Katie: So, we are heading back to the end of World War Two, Korea had been occupied by Japan during the second world war. The USSR liberated the north of the country at the end of the war, and the USA liberated the south. So, at this time the country was divided by a horizontal line border called the Thirty Eighth Parallel, which split the country into two zones of occupation, the Soviet-backed communist North led by Kim Il Sung, and the US-backed capitalist South led by Syngman Ree. This division created two rival governments, each claiming to be the legitimate ruler of Korea.

Datshiane: Ah, it's that old communist verse capitalist theme which runs throughout the series and strikes again.

Katie: Absolutely. The Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union fuelled this conflict.

Datshiane: The USA was committed to a policy of containment, aiming to prevent the spread of communism; whilst the USSR, and later communist China, supported the spread of communism in Asia.

Katie: And Truman, remember him, believed in his Truman Doctrine, which stated that any country that was threatened by communism should be helped by the USA.

Datshiane: So those are the causes. Now the events of the war itself; we'll help you to get familiar with the timeline.

Katie: On the 25th of June 1950, the North Korean forces, equipped and supported by the Soviet Union, invaded South Korea; their aim was to unify the country under communist rule. Kim Il Sung hoped that the South Koreans would welcome the North Korean forces, leading to a quick victory.

Datshiane: In July, the USA sent troops to support South Korea. President Truman remarked, ‘If we let Korea down, the Soviets will keep right on going and swallow up one piece of Asia after another.’

Katie: The UN passed Resolution 82 demanding North Korea's withdrawal from the South.

Datshiane: But hang on a minute, weren't the USSR a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council at the time?

Katie: Yes, go on.

Datshiane: And all permanent members have the right to veto decisions so, they could have just vetoed that decision.

Katie: Spot on, but at this point in history the USSR had been boycotting the United Nations Security Council. And so, Resolution 82 was passed, and the UN assembled a coalition of 16 countries, including Britain, to assist South Korea under the leadership of the USA. If you need a quick way to remember how the UN responded, think cafe, C-A-F-E.

Datshiane: Go on.

Katie: C is for condemnation and call for ceasefire. A is for authorisation of military action; this marked the first time the UN authorised the use of force to counter aggression. F for the formation of a unified command under American leadership, with General Douglas MacArthur at its head. And E is for effort, specifically humanitarian efforts. As with military intervention, the UN made sure there was a coordinated humanitarian aid, to address the needs of the civilian population affected by the war.

Datshiane: CAFE. If that works for you, use it; or if not, think of another mnemonic to help you remember.

Katie: So, between July and September 1950 the UN forces tried to push back North Korean forces from Pusan, a city on the south-east coast of Korea. The North Korean forces had made it all the way down here and set up the Pusan Perimeter.

Datshiane: In September, the UN launched a daring but successful invasion from the sea at Incheon. It turned the tide, allowing UN forces to recapture Seoul and push North Korean forces back.

Katie: But, in October 1950, there was a turning point when the UN forces approached the Yellow River, which was a natural border with China. This provoked China to enter in the war.

Datshiane: How so? Give us those key chain of events - oh, and make a note of these as they are significant in how the war continued.

Katie: Okay, so by pushing North Korean forces all the way to the Yellow River, the UN forces were going beyond what they originally set out to do, which was to push the North Koreans back over the border into North Korea. But, in pushing North Korean soldiers towards the Yellow River, which was a border with China, led to the Chinese launching a massive counter offensive that pushed UN forces back south. The war then became a very, very bloody stalemate around the border with thousands of casualties. And by provoking China to join the war, Truman sacked his military commander General Douglas MacArthur. Let's hear from Jordan, our time travelling reporter, who is in Seoul in 1951.

Jordan: Seoul has once again fallen under United Nations control after fierce fighting. UN and South Korean forces have driven Chinese and North Korean troops northward, reclaiming the capital city in a hard-won battle. This marks the fourth time Seoul has changed hands since the war began nearly nine months ago. Despite today's victory, the situation remains tense with people wondering whose ideology they'll be following next week. I've just been speaking with a journalist from the Associated Press who told me that, only weeks ago in the region around Seoul and Incheon, people were being killed, dispossessed of land and homes, left to starve, and driven away from all they held dear, because they were not communist and refused to act like communists. Today, in that same region, the same things are still happening, because some Koreans are communists and propose to remain so. And through an interpreter, a village elder told me that she was made to go to lectures about life in Russia and how good everything is. She says it was convincing, and people believed what they heard. But she is not a communist; she went because she was hungry. This is Jordan, reporting for Bitesize History. Back to the studio in the present time.

Katie: Thanks, Jordan. Although ceasefire negotiations began in 1951, it was not until the 27th of July 1953 that there was an armistice agreement. This was partly because Stalin died that year, and the North Koreans didn't think the new Soviet leader would keep supporting the war. This agreement established the Korean Demilitarised Zone, DMZ. It effectively ended the fighting without a formal peace treaty. This is one of the most important consequences of the Korean War, as it still exists today. Make a note of it and other consequences that follow.

Datshiane: If you had to imagine what DMZ looks like, then imagine a strip of land about two and a half miles wide and 160 miles long, heavily militarised.

Katie: An exam question might ask about the impact or significance of the Korean War. Remember to include your key knowledge of the events, and link these shorter- and long-term consequences, which you might want to write down. Let's consider some of the human impacts of the war first.

Datshiane: Well, it was huge; there was an enormous loss of human life with millions of Korean civilians and soldiers killed. Even many decades on, Korea remains divided into two countries: North and South.

Katie: This war intensified the Cold War, showing how the USA and USSR would support opposing sides in conflicts around the world, also known as a proxy war. The USA increased its military presence in Asia, and anti-communist sentiment grew.

Datshiane: The war caused immense suffering and loss, with millions of Koreans killed or displaced. Both North and South Korea were left devastated with infrastructure destroyed and economies shattered.

Katie: The Korean War did however reinforce American commitment to containing communism, leading to future conflicts such as in the Vietnam War, which we'll look at in the next episode. It showed that the USA was willing to intervene militarily to stop the spread of communism. China also emerged as a major power and gained respect amongst communist countries for its role in the war. The USSR also demonstrated its support for communist allies, though it indirectly participated by supplying arms and equipment to North Korea.

Datshiane: Overall, the significance of the Korean War was that it set the stage for further Cold War tensions, it divided Korea into two nations (the North and South), and it had lasting impacts on international relations and future American foreign policy.

Katie: Quick test time to see if those key facts have stuck: three questions, five seconds. Here goes. Along which line was North and South Korea divided?

Datshiane: The Thirty Eighth Parallel.

[correct bell sounds]

Katie: Who led the communist regime in North Korea?

Datshiane: Kim Il Sung.

[correct bell sounds]

Katie: Which country intervened in the Korean War in October 1950?

Datshiane: China.

[correct bell sounds]

Katie: Well done to everyone who got all three, which is in fact everyone! In the next episode we'll look at the Vietnam War, this again was a conflict between communism and democracy, and it had a profound impact on the United States of America.

Datshiane: Thanks for listening.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Datshiane: I'm Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And I'm history podcaster Katie Charlwood. And this is Bitesize GCSE History.

Datshiane: This is the sixth episode in a seven-part series on the Cold War and Vietnam War. In this episode we'll be examining a second proxy war, the Vietnam War. We'll look at the causes, key events, and consequences of how it profoundly changed America.

Katie: And remember that it might help you if you have something to make notes on, and do feel free to press, stop and rewind whenever you need to.

Datshiane: Let's get started: the Vietnam War. Katie, give us some historical context, the key whos, whats, whens and whys.

Katie: Okay, Vietnam had been a French colony, an organisation called the Viet Minh had fought for its independence after World War Two. This loss led to the Geneva Accords: agreements which temporarily divided Vietnam at the Seventeenth Parallel, with the communist North led by Ho Chi Minh and the anti-communist South supported by the West and led by Ngo Dinh Diem.

Datshiane: Have a look at the Bitesize website to see a map of Vietnam's location and how the country had been divided along the Seventeenth Parallel.

Katie: Ho Chi Minh looked for support from the USSR and China in his fight for an independent Vietnam, which led the USA to be concerned at the spread of communism in Asia.

Datshiane: The USA policy for Asia was called Containment. China had become a communist nation in 1948, and America did not want to see a domino effect of surrounding countries falling into communism, an effect which my dear co-presenter Katie will now demonstrate with domino bricks.

Katie: Indeed! I've carefully stacked a row of dominoes on their end close to each other, and if I give this one just a tiny little push-

Datshiane: If the first domino or country falls to communism, then the neighbouring ones quickly follow. You might need to pick those up later, by the way.

Katie: Okay… So, Containment was the American effort to support the anti-communist government in South Vietnam, and was a strategic move to counter Soviet and Chinese influence.

Datshiane: In the late 1950s, communist guerilla fighters known as the Viet Cong and supported by North Vietnam began attacking South Vietnamese government forces. The USA feared a communist takeover, and they increased their financial support and military advisers to the South Vietnamese Government.

Katie: Unfortunately for the USA, the leader in South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, was himself a dictator, and somewhat unpopular. He refused to hold elections to reunify Vietnam, which many Vietnamese people wanted. Instead, many supported the communist-led North Vietnam Government under Ho Chi Minh. Financial aid and military advice from the USA wasn't working, and in 1963 Diem was assassinated; it seemed like direct military intervention from the USA was on the horizon.

Datshiane: On the second and fourth of August that year, American navy ships in the Gulf of Tonkin were allegedly attacked by North Vietnamese forces.

Katie: Why allegedly?

Datshiane: Well, there have been different interpretations depending on which source or historian you read, and when these accounts were written. For example, the American government at the time claimed that North Vietnamese torpedo boats launched unprovoked attacks on the USS Maddox. On the night of the attack, President Johnson said, "Repeated acts of violence against the armed forces of the United States must be met, not only with alert defence but with a positive reply. That reply is being given as I speak tonight."

Katie: However, critics later questioned whether the second attack on the fourth of August actually occurred, and that the American administration had used the incident to gain support for escalating the war. Historian Robert Hanyok concluded that: no convincing evidence supported the second attack, and, that intelligence was manipulated to justify US escalation.

Datshiane: And not surprisingly, North Vietnam viewed the American naval operations in that area as provocations, and argued that any confrontations were defensive.

Katie: These differing interpretations of history are typical, and might be the basis of an exam question depending on which GCSE syllabus you are taking. Have a listen back to the Exam Skill series where we talk about how to tackle these.

Datshiane: That incident led to escalation from the USA, and by 1965 American ground troops were deployed and heavy bombing campaigns like Operation Rolling Thunder began.

Katie: Lots of info in that last section, perhaps press pause here and reflect on the causes for American intervention in Vietnam, thinking about those which were short term and those long term.

Datshiane: The Vietnam War is often used as an example of guerilla warfare. That's because although the USA had huge military power the Viet Cong used guerilla tactics: things like ambushes, booby traps and tunnel systems; and the dense jungle terrain and their familiarity with the environment gave them an advantage against the USA.

Katie: As American casualties mounted and media coverage showed the brutal tactics used by American soldiers against the Vietnamese people, public opinion turned against it. Massive protests erupted across the United States, and calls for withdrawal grew stronger.

Datshiane: In America it led to growing anti-war sentiment and protests, particularly after events like the My Lai massacre when American soldiers killed hundreds of unarmed women, children and elderly Vietnamese people. Both this and other events pressured American politicians to find a resolution and end the war. You might have studied these events in your history lessons, but if you need a refresh, go back to the Bitesize website. Okay, so by the late 1960s the American president, who is now Richard Nixon, introduced the policy of Vietnamisation, a long and difficult process, to gradually withdraw American troops whilst transferring combat responsibilities to South Vietnamese forces. In 1973, the Paris Peace Accords were signed and these agreed a ceasefire, but American combat troops didn't leave South Vietnam until April 1975; and Katie, when they left it was in quite a dramatic fashion.

Katie: You are absolutely right. So, let's hear from Kitty our time-travelling reporter who is in Vietnam for more on this.

Kitty: You can hear the roar of helicopters overhead. American troops are finally packing up, preparing to leave this war-torn country after a decade of conflict. As I watch the last soldiers board the helicopters and planes I can't help but think about the cost to all concerned. Vietnamese women have played pivotal roles in this conflict not just as supporters but as fighters and leaders in their own right. Nguyen Thi Binh is a prominent South Vietnamese communist leader and chief negotiator at the Paris Peace Accords; she told me that, "the struggle for our country is not just a political issue, it's a matter of life and death for our people, especially our women and children. I was extremely angry at the enemy, and I love my country so much. This was because, every day, bombs and shells were falling, and the blood and bones of my people appeared before my eyes." The war tore at the fabric of American society with protests erupting across the country as citizens questioned the purpose and morality of the conflict. Many wonder why the United States with all its might was unable to secure victory here. The answer lies in the determination of the Vietnamese people, their guerilla tactics, and the support they receive from allies. This was more than a battle for land, it was a fight for identity and self-determination. As I stand here, it's clear that the war has left deep scars on both nations. This is Kitty reporting from Vietnam, back to the studio.

Datshiane: Thanks Kitty. After American forces withdrew, North Vietnamese forces launched a final offensive. In April 1975, they captured Saigon the capital of South Vietnam, leading to the unification of Vietnam under communist rule.

Katie: The human cost of the war was huge, resulting in the deaths of an estimated two to three million Vietnamese people, and over 58,000 American soldiers. Many more were wounded and the conflict left lasting trauma and destruction across Vietnam.

Datshiane: So, the war deeply divided American society, and it also eroded trust in the government. The antiwar movement, draft protest, and media coverage changed American perceptions of it, and it led to a more cautious approach in future conflicts. This experience influenced future American interventions, making leaders more hesitant to become entangled in foreign conflicts.

Katie: And despite fears of the domino effect, the spread of communism in Southeast Asia was limited. The war did not significantly alter the global balance of power, but highlighted the limits of American influence in the Cold War.

Katie: So why did the USA lose the Vietnam War? This, or something like it, might be the basis of an essay question.

Datshiane: As with all questions like this, there are usually many reasons or causes, remember to make your point about each based on your knowledge. Use evidence to explain each reason, this could be something like a source quote, and link it back to the question. Point, evidence, explain, link. Remember PEEL, our friendly banana from our Exam Skill series; or have a listen back if you don't.

Katie: In this case the reasons will include the guerilla tactics of the Viet Cong which made it difficult for the American forces to engage with them, as well as the difficulties associated with fighting in the jungle terrain.

Datshiane: Also, that the American military underestimated the determination of the Vietnamese people, and the significant impact of anti-war public opinion and TV news in America.

Katie: So, write one PEEL paragraph on each of those, and your answer might conclude along these lines: The USA lost the Vietnam War due to effectiveness of guerilla tactics, the challenges posed by the geography, the impact of anti-war sentiment at home, and the support received by North Vietnam from other communist nations. The combination of these factors made it impossible for the United States to win the war, despite its military strength.

Datshiane: And if the question asks you to judge which reason was the most important and why, then you can also have a go at that question yourself after this podcast. Again, these judgement questions are ones that two very nice presenters talked about in the Exam Skill series.

Datshiane: Quick test of your knowledge: three questions, five seconds, here it goes. Who was the communist leader of North Vietnam and the leader of the Viet Cong?

Katie: That would be Ho Chi Minh.

[correct bell sounds]

Datshiane: What was the American policy aimed at preventing the spread of communism in Asia?

Katie: Containment.

[correct bell sounds]

Datshiane: What event led to America getting involved directly in the war against North Vietnam?

Katie: The Gulf of Tonkin incident.

[correct bell sounds]

Datshiane: Well done all of you who got those right.

Katie: In the final episode we look at the events that led to the end of the Cold War. Don't miss that! Thanks for listening.

Announcer: BBC Sounds, music, radio, podcasts.

Katie: I'm history podcaster Katie Charlwood.

Datshiane: And I'm history graduate and TV and radio presenter Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And this is Bitesize GCSE History.

Datshiane: This is the final episode in a seven-part series on the Cold War and Vietnam War. In this episode, we'll see how tensions finally ease through détente and how significant events like the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the USSR brought an end to the Soviet Union. Ok, let's get started. Katie is going to take us back to the 1970s to look at the causes for the end of the Cold War.

Katie: Absolutely. By the 1970s, both superpowers, the USA and the USSR, faced economic strains and sought to reduce the risk of nuclear war. Particularly after the events like the Cuban Missile Crisis. The USA was also dealing with the costly Vietnam War while the USSR faced economic challenges at home.

Datshiane: So those economic strains fed into a period of improved relations between the United States and the Soviet Union during the 1970s, aimed at reducing Cold War tensions. And this was known as détente.

Katie: Which is French for relaxation. And indeed it was.

Datshiane: Two key features of this détente were agreements to control nuclear arms and improve trade and diplomacy.

Katie: A win-win for both superpowers, who can now spend less money on weapons and more money trying to address problems in their own countries. The Soviet Union particularly wanted to improve living standards and have a better economy.

Datshiane: But Katie, it was also a win-win for planet Earth as the nuclear arms race slowed down.

Katie: In 1975, planet Earth looked up to space as American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts met and shook hands in a symbolic gesture of friendship.

Datshiane: And also in 1975, another key agreement was signed, the Helsinki Accords. This saw the thirty-three countries of NATO and the Warsaw Pact come together to accept the post-war borders and agree basic human rights.

Katie: Fantastic! Sounds like everyone is getting on fine and we can all relax at last.

Datshiane: Not so fast. Unfortunately, things took a turn for the worse towards the end of the 1970s and into the 1980s.

Katie: I knew it was too good to be true.

Datshiane: In 1979, the American president, who was now Jimmy Carter, had a more suspicious view of the USSR, especially its record of human rights. And at the same time, the USSR began to replace its older nuclear missiles with newer ones.

Katie: Oh no, arms race alert!

Datshiane: Exactly. The USA responded by developing and deploying updates in its arsenal of nuclear weapons around Europe.

Katie: And then in December 1979, the USSR invaded Afghanistan.

Datshiane: For more details on the causes and events of the Afghan War, head over to the Bitesize website.

Katie: Also in 1979, American president Jimmy Carter announced a boycott of the Olympics, which were to take place in Moscow the following year.

Datshiane: By which time Ronald Reagan had now become president of the USA.

Katie: And in return, the USSR then boycotted the 1984 Olympics, which took place in Los Angeles.

Datshiane: Sounds like lots of boycotting going on there.

Katie: Yup, they weren't competing against each other on the track, but the only race they were competing against each other in was the new arms race.

Datshiane: President Reagan also took a hardline stance against the USSR, promoting a strong military buildup and the Strategic Defense Initiative, or SDI, which was also known as Star Wars.

Katie: Star Wars, like those fantastic science fiction films from that period?

Datshiane: Yes, because parts of the defensive system that Reagan promoted would be based in space.

Katie: So yet again, the ideological tension between capitalism and communism was leading the world back towards the Cold War. When will it end?

Datshiane: How about in the next section?

Katie: Let's get there now.

Datshiane: OK, in 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became the Soviet leader and he introduced significant reforms in the USSR with the policies of Glasnost, or openness, and Perestroika, or economic restructuring. These were aimed at modernising the Soviet economy and society.

Katie: Those are Russian words, glasnost and perestroika. If it helps, as a memory aid, I think of the first part of glasnost as glass, which is transparent, like the policy to promote openness.

Datshiane: And perestroika?

Katie: How do you get your football team to score more goals? Get a pair of strikers.

Datshiane: If it helps you remember, use it.

Katie: Thanks to these policies and a personal rapport between Reagan and Gorbachev, Cold War tensions reduced and mutual trust was rebuilt.

Datshiane: A series of summits and meetings between Reagan and Gorbachev led to key agreements, such as the INF Treaty in 1987, which eliminated intermediate-range nuclear missiles. However, the Cold War didn't just end because of Reagan and Gorbachev's actions. Opposition in the communist-controlled Eastern European countries was increasing, and this is seen most famously in Berlin.

Katie: It's always Berlin. Here it is again at the centre of the Cold War.

Datshiane: I mean, it's definitely a running theme.

Katie: In the previous episode in this series, we looked at how and why the wall was built and came to symbolise a division between communist East Berlin and capitalist West Berlin. Have a relisten if you need to.

Datshiane: By the late 1980s, growing protests in Eastern Europe, combined with economic struggles and demands for more freedoms, pressured communist governments. And in November 1989, faced with mass protests and pressure for democratic reforms, the East German government announced that citizens could cross the Berlin Wall freely. Let's hear from our time travelling reporter, Jordan, who we've sent back in time to that moment.

[cheering]

Jordan: There is excitement and disbelief as people gather along the Berlin Wall across the city. Just moments ago, the announcement came. East Germany is opening its borders. I'm surrounded by cheers and laughter, [SFX: hammering stone] the sound of hammers and chisels echoing as people begin to chip away at the concrete division of West and East Germany that has become a symbol of the Cold War. Colourful banners wave in the chilly air. I just met an East Berliner who told me, "I decided to leave my house and come into Berlin to take part in the protests." He described himself as a ‘Mauerspechte’, a wall woodpecker. As he ran off cheering, he shouted, "It's 1989, I am in Berlin just for freedom and unity." And that sentiment is clearly shared on both sides of the wall. After years of oppression, the fall of the Berlin Wall signifies a new era of hope and change. People are talking about reunification and the future filled with possibilities. The Cold War is starting to crumble, and the world is watching. This is Jordan reporting from Berlin in 1989. Back to the Bitesize Studio.

Datshiane: Thank you Jordan, at the Berlin Wall. This was a massive moment because the fall of the Berlin Wall marked the symbolic end of the Cold War and eventually it did indeed lead to German reunification in 1990.

Katie: Perhaps even more dramatic was the collapse of the USSR itself a year later in 1991. An exam question might ask you about this, so let's have a think about how we might tackle one. Datshiane, give me a question please.

Datshiane: Gorbachev's reforms were the main reason for the collapse of the Soviet Union. To what extent do you, Katie, agree with this statement?

Katie: That's one of those ‘how much do you agree with the statement’ questions. So, make sure that in your answer you say whether you do or don't agree and say why.

Datshiane: Press pause and give it a go yourself or listen on as we have a try.

Katie: So, the question here is asking specifically about Gorbachev's reforms. So, you must write about what you know about those and the extent that they led to the Soviet Union collapse. So maybe start there.

Datshiane: Ok, Gorbachev's reforms, perestroika and glasnost, they were intended to strengthen the USSR, but instead they led to greater demands for independence amongst Soviet republics, nationalist movements grew stronger and many republics declared independence.

Katie: That's a good start. Now write about some of the other reasons. How about the economic problems?

Datshiane: Ok, so the Soviet economy was in severe decline; the Cold War and the invasion of Afghanistan were a huge financial drain. They were unable to compete with the West and they struggled with inefficiency and a lack of consumer goods.

Katie: You're on a roll. Another reason, perhaps the fall of the Berlin Wall.

Datshiane: Yes, the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe, symbolised by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, inspired independence movements within the USSR and it made it difficult for Gorbachev to keep the Union intact.

Katie: And have you got anything else?

Datshiane: One more, in August 1991, there was a failed coup attempt by hardline communists, which further destabilised the Soviet government.

Katie: And of course that all-important conclusion.

Datshiane: Yes, the conclusion. So, in conclusion, I would agree that Gorbachev's reforms of glasnost and perestroika were the key factors in the collapse of the Soviet Union, but they must be seen in the context of a broader set of problems. Long-standing economic struggles, external pressures from the Cold War, the impact of the Afghanistan War and the rise of nationalism all combined to make the collapse inevitable.

Katie: Good answer. How did yours compare? If you didn't agree with this statement and think that there were other factors that were more important, that's ok. But you must say why. That's what the examiner wants you to do.

Datshiane: Quick memory test. As usual, three questions, five seconds to write those answers down. Here we go. What was the name of the period of the thaw in the Cold War in the early 1970s?

Katie: That would be détente.

[correct bell sounds]

Datshiane: What were the names of the key policies introduced by Gorbachev in the USSR?

Katie: Glasnost (openness), and my "pair of strikers" or perestroika (restructuring).

[correct bell sounds]

Datshiane: And Katie, when did the Berlin Wall fall?

Katie: The Berlin Wall fell on the 9th of November 1989.

[correct bell sounds]

Datshiane: You're excellent, Katie. You've aced it again.

Katie: Final summary for the final episode on the Cold War. Here goes. Tensions in the Cold War reduced in the 1970s period of détente due to economic strains in the USA and the USSR.

Datshiane: But they did heighten again in the early 1980s due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the renewal of nuclear arms.

Katie: And then in the mid-1980s, Gorbachev's reforms and his relationship with President Reagan improved relations.

Datshiane: The Berlin Wall fell in 1989 and Germany was reunified in 1990.

Katie: And in 1991, the Soviet Union itself collapsed.

Datshiane: The Cold War was over. There's loads more on this and other Bitesize GCSE topics on the Bitesize website.

Katie: Thanks so much for listening to this series and good luck with your exam.

Datshiane: I've been Datshiane Navanayagam.

Katie: And I've been Katie Charlwood.

BOTH: See ya!